| Grade of water sample | Presumptive coliform count/ 100ml |
| Excellent | 0 |
| Satisfactory | 1-3 |
| Unsatisfactory | >10 |
Results
The samples were collected from various sources like tap water, spring water, borewells and tube wells.
Table 1. District wise distribution of water samples
|
S No. |
District |
Number of samples analysed |
%age |
|
1. |
Bandipora |
36 |
5.76 |
|
2. |
Baramulla |
16 |
2.56 |
|
3. |
Ganderbal |
56 |
8.96 |
|
4. |
Kulgam |
142 |
22.72 |
|
5. |
Kupwara |
9` |
1.44 |
|
6. |
Pulwama |
172 |
27.52 |
|
7 |
Shopian |
124 |
19.84 |
|
8. |
Srinagar |
70 |
11.2 |
|
Total |
625 |
100 |
|
Table 1- During the two-year period of study (2018-2019) 625 water samples were received in Public Health Laboratory, Division of Public Health & Epidemiology Barzulla Srinagar J&K. The samples were collected from 8 districts which include Baramulla, Ganderbal, Kulgam, Kupwara, Pulwama, Srinagar, Shopian and Bandipora
Table 2. Results of presumptive coliform count in relation to district
|
District |
Number of samples analysed |
Excellent N (%) |
Satisfactory N (%) |
Unsatisfactory N (%) |
Suspicious N (%) |
|
Bandipora |
36 |
3(8.3) |
6 (16.66) |
26 (72.22) |
1(2.7) |
|
Baramulla |
16 |
Nil |
8 (50) |
7 (43.75) |
1 (6.25) |
|
Ganderbal |
56 |
13 (26.78) |
11 (23.21) |
32 (57.14) |
Nil |
|
Kulgam |
142 |
5 (3.47) |
32 (22.53) |
105 (73.9) |
Nil |
|
Kupwara |
09 |
Nil |
Nil |
9 (100) |
Nil |
|
Pulwama |
172 |
25 (16.29) |
37 (21.51) |
105 (59.55) |
5 (3.93) |
|
Shopian |
124 |
7 (6.45) |
23 (18.54) |
90 (88.81) |
4 (3.2) |
|
Srinagar |
70 |
33 (47.14) |
12 (17.14) |
25 (32.85) |
Nil |
|
Total |
625 |
86 (13.76) |
129 (20.64) |
399 (63.84) |
11 (1.76) |
Table 2- Among the total water samples (n=625), taken from various sources, 399 (63.84%) were unsatisfactory for human consumption, 129 (20.64%) were satisfactory, 86(13.76%) were excellent and 11(1.76%) were found to be suspicious. Overall, 34.4% samples analyzed were fit for human consumption.
Table 3. Results of presumptive coliform count in relation to source of drinking water
|
Source |
Total samples |
Excellent N (%) |
Satisfactory N (%) |
Unsatisfactory N (%) |
Suspicious N (%) |
|
Tap water |
366 |
60 (16.39) |
75 (20.27) |
224 (61.20) |
7 (1.91) |
|
Tube well |
105 |
8 (7.61) |
20 (19.04 |
74 (70.19) |
3 (2.85) |
|
Spring water |
60 |
1 (2.66) |
7 (11.66) |
51 (85) |
1 (1.66) |
|
Reservoir |
70 |
10 (14.28) |
19 (27.14) |
41 (58.57) |
Nil |
|
Bore well |
08 |
1 (2.5) |
5 (62.5) |
2 (25) |
Nil |
|
Filtration plant |
16 |
6 (37.5) |
3 (18.75) |
7 (43.75) |
Nil |
|
Total |
625 |
86 |
129 |
399 (63.84) |
11 |
Table 3- Among total samples (N=625), 366 (58.56%) were taken from tap water out of which 74(20.21%) were satisfactory, 224(61.2%) were unsatisfactory, 60(16.39%) samples were excellent and 7 samples(1.91%) were suspicious. 105 samples were taken from tube-well out of which 70.47% (n=74) samples were unsatisfactory, 8 (7.61%) were excellent and 20 (19.04 %) were satisfactory. 60 samples were taken from springs out of which 51 (85%) were unsatisfactory 1 was excellent and 7 were satisfactory and one suspicious.
Table 4. Distribution of water samples from different sources in relation to different districts
|
Source |
Total Samples |
Bandipora N (%) |
Baramulla N (%) |
Ganderbal N (%) |
Kupwara N (%) |
Kulgam N (%) |
Pulwama N (%) |
Shopian N (%) |
Srinagar N (%) |
|
Tap water |
366 |
22 (6.01) |
8 (2.18) |
34(9.28) |
2(0.54) |
87 (23.11) |
84 (22.95) |
71 (19.39) |
57 (15.57) |
|
Tube well |
105 |
5 (4.85) |
2 (1.94) |
4 (3.88) |
3 (2.91) |
11 (10.4) |
39 (37.86) |
30 (29.1) |
10 (9.52) |
|
Spring water |
60 |
3 (5) |
1 (1.66) |
13 (21.66) |
4 (6.66) |
21 (35) |
11 (18.33) |
7 (11.6) |
NIL |
|
Reservoir |
70 |
6 (8.33) |
5 (6.94) |
5 (6.95) |
NIL |
23 (31.94) |
17 (23.61) |
11 (15.7) |
3 (4.28) |
|
Bore well |
08 |
Nil |
Nil |
Nil |
Nil |
Nil |
5 (62.5) |
3 (37.5) |
NIL |
|
Filtration plant |
16 |
Nil |
Nil |
Nil |
Nil |
Nil |
16 (100) |
Nil |
Nil |
|
Total |
625 |
36 |
16 |
56 |
9 |
142 |
172 |
124 |
70 |
Table 4- 70 samples were taken from reservoir out of which 41(58.57%) were unsatisfactory 19 (27.14%) were satisfactory and 10(14.28%) excellent. 8 samples were taken from bore-well, out of which 2 were unsatisfactory, 5 were satisfactory and one sample was excellent. 16 samples were taken from filtration plant out of which 7 were unsatisfactory 3 were satisfactory and 6 were found excellent i.e. 56.25% (9/16) were fit for human consumption.
Discussion
Out of 366 tap water samples 231 (63.28%) were found to be unfit for human consumption (Unsatisfactory + suspicious). This is in accordance to the study carried out by M Shurutikir et al [15] which have also reported about 50% samples collected from Municipal tap water to be contaminated. The results are also consistent with other studies carried out by Malhotra S eta l and Goyal S et al [14, 16] which reveal 45.4% and 81.3% respectively of samples from municipal taps to be unfit for human consumption. In this study, it was observed only tap water from Srinagar city had lower MPN count as compared to other districts and thus fit for human consumption. This is in accordance to the study carried out by Rehman etal [17] who have also reported lowest MPN from Srinagar city. The reason for this discrepancy between Srinagar city and adjoining districts maybe due to the reason that storage, filtration and disinfection are properly carried out in Srinagar city as the samples taken from all the reservoirs were found to be excellent with MPN count of zero.
A very high rate of contamination reported from other districts maybe due to the ineffective treatment and storage process as the samples obtained from reservoirs showed a very high rate of contamination (41/70) Such a high rate of contamination may also be attributed to the defective pipelines and distribution systems which leads to seepage from several lines and waste disposal facilities leading to contamination.
Majority of samples 85%, taken from spring water were found to have high MPN count. There are many reasons for this.
- A large proportion of migratory population of Gujjar-Bakerwal families along with their flocks migrate to hilly areas and pastures in summer season. Open defecation in the hilly areas leads to water pollution in rainy season.
- Kashmir being a tourist destination and these tourist places are not provided with proper sanitation facilities.
- A large proportion of native population in rural areas do not have sanitary toilets, in certain areas toilets have been constructed under Swachh Bharat Mission- Gramin but water supply is not adequate.
- A combination of tourists, pilgrims, migrant labourers, and general lack of sanitation especially in rural areas contributes to water pollution.
- During rainy season this excreta flows into surface water thus contaminating water bodies leading to very high MPN count
- Result of our study about untreated water are in agreement with findings of S Goyel and Nagurai [14, 18] who have also reported high rate of contamination with higher MPN count. Our results are also supported by studies carried out by Hasnanin and Qureshi [19] who also reported high rate of contamination in spring water.
- About 73.32% of samples taken from tube wells were found to be contaminated and thus unfit for human consumption. The reason may be due to inadequate protection of water source which leads to seepage from sewer lines and other waste disposal facilities. These results are in accordance with study carried out by Borah M etal [10] which also shows about 78.1% of samples to be contaminated.
- About 65% samples were taken from bore wells were found to be fit for human consumption. The reason may be due to increased depth of bore wells as compared to other sources.
It has been estimated that water, sanitation and hygiene are responsible for 4% of all deaths and 5.7% of the total disease burden occurring worldwide [21]. In developing countries, like India, providing effective sanitation and access to safe drinking water is a major problem. Large number of programmes have been launched by Government of India with the aim of providing safe water supply and adequate drainage facilities for the entire urban and rural population of the country. According to the initiatives in 12th Five Year Plan, target has been set according to which 50% of rural population in the country should have access to water within household premises or within 100 meters radius, with at least 30% having individual household connections, as against 13% today. [21]
Swach Bharat Mission/Abhiyan is the most recent initiative which aims at improving the cleanliness in rural areas through solid and liquid waste management and making the country free of open defecation, clean and sanitized. In spite of all these efforts there are reports of water borne infectious disease outbreaks from entire country. In our study which aims to study the bacteriological quality of drinking water in Kashmir valley, large number (65.6%) of samples were found to be contaminated with fecal coli-forms. Reason for such a high rate of contamination in our UT is lack of sanitary methods for disposal of human excreta (open defecation being one of them) and inadequate sewage disposal in water bodies.
Conclusion
Water quality assessment in Kashmir valley showed that most of the water is of poor quality and unfit for human consumption. Improvement of water quality and its regular monitoring is essential to overcome water-borne diseases
DECLARATIONS
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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